Meaning of Gender in English Grammar

Meaning of Gender in English Grammar Gender is a  grammatical classification which in Modern English applies primarily to the third-person singular personal pronouns. Also known as  grammatical gender. Unlike many other European languages, English no longer has masculine and feminine inflections for nouns  and  determiners.   EtymologyFrom Latin, race, kind. Examples and Observations Although English and German are descendants of the same branch of Germanic, viz. West Germanic, they are characterized by rather different developments in the course of their histories. . . .While German preserved the system of grammatical gender inherited from Germanic and ultimately from Indo-European, English lost it and replaced it by natural gender, a development which is assumed to have taken place in late Old English and early Middle English, i.e. roughly between the 10th and the 14th century. . . .(Dieter Kastovsky, Inflectional Classes, Morphological Restructuring, and the Dissolution of Old English Grammatical Gender. Gender in Grammar and Cognition, ed. by Barbara Unterbeck and Matti Rissanen. Mouton de Gruyter, 1999)   The Loss of Gender in Middle English[F]unctional overload . . . seems to be a plausible way to account for what we observe in Middle English, that is, after Old English and Old Norse had come into contact: gender assignment often diverged in Old English and Old Norse, which would have readily led to the elimination of it in order to avoid confusion and to lessen the strain of learning the other contrastive system. . . .[I]n an alternative account, it was the contact with French that played the role of a catalyst in the eventual  loss of gender in Middle English: when French entered the English language, the distinction of gender became problematic, because speakers were confronted with two quite different gender categories. Since it is always difficult to learn gender in a second language, the consequence of this conflict was that gender was given up in Middle English.(Tania Kuteva and  Bernd Heine, An Integrative Model of Grammaticalization.   Grammatical Replication and Borro wability in Language Contact, ed. by  Bjà ¶rn Wiemer, Bernhard Wlchli, and Bjà ¶rn Hansen. Walter de Gruyter, 2012) Gendered PetsEven in English, which does not have a full-blown grammatical gender system, there is a tendency to ignore the sex of some animals but still refer to them with gendered forms. Many speakers use she indiscriminately for cats and he for dogs.(Penelope Eckert and Sally McConnell-Ginet, Language and Gender, 2nd ed. Cambridge University Press, 2013) American Males and Their Female Cars- I smiled back at him and toyed with all of the gadgets in the car.Oh, shes nice, aint she? This is top of the line here, he told me.Why do men refer to cars as she? I asked just for the hell of it.Because were men, Byron answered. He laughed, a strong hearty laugh. Maybe it was too hearty. He was really pleased with his sale.(Omar Tyree, For the Love of Money. Simon and Schuster, 2000)- American males often refer to their cars as a she, thereby revealing their dominance over the machines and women . . ..(Tony Magistrale, Hollywoods Stephen King. Palgrave Macmillan, 2003) Gender and Third-Person Singular PronounsThe 3rd person singular pronouns contrast in gender: - The masculine gender pronoun he is used for males - humans or animals that have salient enough characteristics for us to think of them as differentiated (certainly for gorillas, usually for ducks, probably not for rats, certainly not for cockroaches).- The feminine gender pronoun she is used for females, and also, by extension, for certain other things conventionally treated in a similar way: political entities ( France has recalled her ambassador) and certain personified inanimates, especially ships ( May God bless her and all who sail in her.).- The neuter pronoun it is used for inanimates, or for male and female animals (especially lower animals and non-cuddly creatures), and sometimes for human infants if the sex is unknown or considered irrelevant. . . . No singular 3rd person pronoun in English is universally accepted as appropriate for referring to a human when you dont want to specify sex. . . . The pronoun most widely used in such cases is they, in a secondary use that is interpreted semantically as singular.(Rodney Huddleston and Geoffrey K. Pullum, A Students Introduction to English Grammar. Cambridge University Press, 2006) Agreement With IndefinitesUnder close scrutiny, [the rule mandating singular agreement with indefinites] emerges as a pragmatically cumbersome, linguistically unreliable, and ideologically provocative rule, which entered the canon under false pretenses.(Elizabeth S. Sklar, The Tribunal of Use: Agreement in Indefinite Constructions. College Composition and Communication, December 1988) Pronunciation: JEN-der

Biography of Charles Wheatstone, British Inventor

Biography of Charles Wheatstone, British Inventor Charles Wheatstone (February 6, 1802–October 19, 1875) was an English natural philosopher and inventor, perhaps best known today for his contributions to the electric telegraph. However, he invented and contributed in several fields of science, including photography, electrical generators, encryption, acoustics, and musical instruments and theory. Fast Facts: Charles Wheatstone Known For: Physics experiments and patents applying to sight and sound, including the electric telegraph, the concertina, and the stereoscopeBorn:  February 6, 1802 at Barnwood, near Gloucester, EnglandParents: William and Beata Bubb WheatstoneDied: October 19, 1875 in Paris, FranceEducation: No formal science education, but excelled in French, math, and physics at  Kensington and Vere Street schools, and took an apprenticeship in his uncles music factoryAwards and Honors: Professor of Experimental Philosophy at Kings College, Fellow of the Royal Society in 1837, knighted by Queen Victoria in 1868Spouse: Emma WestChildren: Charles Pablo, Arthur William Fredrick, Florence Caroline, Catherine Ada, Angela Early Life Charles Wheatstone was born on February 6, 1802, near Gloucester, England. He was the second child born to William (1775–1824) and Beata Bubb Wheatstone, members of a music business family established on the Strand in London at least as early as 1791, and perhaps as early as 1750. William and Beata and their family moved to London in 1806, where William set up shop as a flute teacher and maker; his elder brother Charles Sr. was head of the family business, manufacturing and selling musical instruments. Charles learned to read at age 4 and was sent to school early at the Kensington Proprietary Grammar School and Vere Street Board School in Westminster, where he excelled in French, math, and physics. In 1816, he was apprenticed to his Uncle Charles, but by the age of 15, his uncle complained that he was neglecting his work at the shop to read, write, publish songs, and pursue an interest in electricity and acoustics. In 1818, Charles produced his first known musical instrument, the flute harmonique, which was a keyed instrument. No examples have survived. Early Inventions and Academics In September 1821, Charles Wheatstone exhibited his Enchanted Lyre or Acoucryptophone  at a gallery in a music store, a musical instrument that appeared to play itself to amazed shoppers. The Enchanted Lyre was not a real instrument, but rather a sounding box disguised as a  lyre  that hung from the ceiling by a thin steel wire. The wire was connected to the soundboards of a piano, harp, or dulcimer played in an upper room, and as those instruments were played, the sound was conducted down the wire, setting off sympathetic resonance of the lyres strings. Wheatstone speculated publicly that at some time in the future, music might be transmitted in a similar manner throughout London laid on like gas. In 1823 acclaimed Danish scientist Hans Christian Ãâ€"rsted (1777–1851) saw the Enchanted Lyre and convinced Wheatstone to write his first scientific article, New Experiments in Sound. Ãâ€"rsted presented the paper to the Acadà ©mie Royale des Sciences in Paris, and it was eventually published in Great Britain in Thomsons Annals of Philosophy. Wheatstone began his association with the Royal Institution of Great Britain (also known as the Royal Institute, founded in 1799) in the mid-1820s, writing papers to be presented by close friend and RI member Michael Faraday (1791–1869) because he was too shy to do it himself.   Early Inventions Wheatstone had a wide-ranging interest in sound and vision and contributed many inventions and improvements on existing inventions while he was active. His first patent (#5803) was for a Construction of Wind Instruments on June 19, 1829, describing the use of a flexible bellows. From there, Wheatstone developed the concertina, a bellows-driven, free-reed instrument in which each button produces the same pitch regardless of the way the bellows are moving. The patent was not published until 1844, but Faraday gave a Wheatstone-written lecture demonstrating the instrument to the Royal Institute in 1830. Academics and Professional Life Despite his lack of a formal education in science, in 1834 Wheatstone was made a Professor of Experimental Philosophy at Kings College, London, where he conducted pioneering experiments in electricity and invented an improved dynamo. He also invented two devices to measure and regulate electrical resistance and current: the Rheostat and an improved version of what is now known as the Wheatstone bridge (it was actually invented by Samuel Hunter Christie  in 1833). He held the position at Kings College for the remainder of his life, although he continued working in the family business for another 13 years. In 1837, Charles Wheatstone partnered with inventor and entrepreneur William Cooke to co-invent an electric telegraph, a now-outdated communication system that transmitted electric signals over wires from location to location, signals that could be translated into a message. The Wheatstone-Cooke or needle telegraph was the first working communication system of its kind in Great Britain, and it was put into operation on the London and Blackwall Railway. Wheatstone was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) that same year. Wheatstone invented an early version of the stereoscope in 1838, versions of which became a very popular philosophical toy in the later 19th century. Wheatstones stereoscope used two slightly different versions of the same image, which when viewed through two separate tubes gave the viewer the optical illusion of depth. Throughout his professional life, Wheatstone invented both philosophical toys and scientific instruments, exercising his interests in linguistics, optics, cryptography (the Playfair Cipher), typewriters, and clocks- one of his inventions was the Polar Clock, which told time by polarized light. Marriage and Family On February 12, 1847, Charles Wheatstone married Emma West, the daughter of a local tradesman, and they eventually had five children. That year he also stopped working in a significant way at the family business to concentrate on his academic research. His wife died in 1866, at which point his youngest daughter Angela was 11 years old. Wheatstone gleaned a number of important awards and honors throughout his career. He was elected to the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in 1859, made a Foreign Associate of the French Academy of Sciences in 1873, and became an honorary member of the Institution of Civil Engineers in 1875. He was knighted by Queen Victoria in 1868. He was named a Doctor of Civil Law (DCL) at Oxford and a doctor of law (LLD) at Cambridge. Death and Legacy Charles Wheatstone was one of the most inventive geniuses of his generation, combining combined science-based publication with business-focused patent applications and serious research with a playful interest in philosophical toys and inventions. He died of bronchitis on October 19, 1875, in Paris while he was working on yet another new invention, this one for submarine cables. He is buried in Kensal Green Cemetery near his home in London. Sources Bowers, Brian. Sir Charles Wheatstone, F.R.S. 1802–1875. London: Her Majestys Stationery Office, 1975Anonymous. Wheatstone Collection. Special Collections. Kings College London, March 27, 2018. Web. Rycroft, David. The Wheatstones. The Galpin Society Journal 45 (1992): 123–30. Print.Wade, Nicholas J. Charles Wheatstone (1802–1875). Perception 31.3 (2002): 265–72. Print.Wayne, Neil. The Wheatstone English Concertina. The Galpin Society Journal 44 (1991): 117–49. Print.

Brand Creation and Advertising Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Brand Creation and Advertising - Essay Example In the era of rapid globalization, global advertising is important element of creating and maintaining enviable market position of products across the globe. Effective brand advertising therefore, facilitates good market positioning of the products and holds true for all type of companies, wishing to expand and exploit global market to gain necessary leverage. Hamsini Shivkumar’s article on the challenges faced in global advertising are succinct and give useful insight into the factors that can make or break the global positioning of the products across globe. Brand creation and advertising are very important part of market strategy. While ‘brand building is needed because products are the same’ (Kotler, 2005), advertising creates the necessary awareness amongst the segmented market to promote and influence the buying decisions of the public. Effective brand advertising therefore, facilitates good market positioning of the products and holds true for all type of companies, wishing to expand and exploit global market to gain necessary leverage. Taking cognizance of the following factors would promote global marketing campaigns of the products: Effective communication is important tool to overcome the barrier of language and socio-psychological paradigms of global community. Facilitating easy access to information brightens the scope of retaining the customers. With so much choice in the open market, one must advertise the unique advantages of the products and their usefulness to draw in new customers while keeping the old. The customer is always interested in the end result of his purchase so he needs to be shown the extra benefits that he would be getting on the purchase! Segmentation of the market as per the demographic compulsions is yet another factor that contributes towards more dominant market position vis-à  -vis common needs and concept that reaches across the race, culture, color and nationality.  

Research Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 3

Research Paper - Essay Example Arrest, detention and seizure are governed by stringent regulations and limitations which, according to Pilon (2000) are primarily intended to protect the citizenry against unreasonable searches, unjustifiable detentions and importantly, against the possibility of law enforcement’s abusing its powers. It is in relation to the stated that Turkey stands in direct contrast to Canada. This Eurasian nation has been cited for human rights abuses on countless occasions and both Amnesty International and the European Commission for Human Rights have repeatedly shed light on abuses vis-Ã  -vis all of search, seizure and detention (ECHR, 2003; U.S. Department of State, 2007). A comparison of the arrest, detention and seizure framework in Canada and Turkey will serve to underscore the imperatives of limiting police authority through the clear explication of the citizenry’s civic rights for the prevention of abuses which translate into nothing less than inexcusable miscarriages of justice. The rules which govern arrest, detention and seizure in Turkey are grounded in the country’s constitution. The Turkish Constitution clearly outlines the civic rights of the citizenry and outlines the limitations on police authority. As Kinzer (2002) explains, arbitrary arrests are prohibited with no statements of exception. Law enforcement must have a clear reason for arresting citizens and must establish, before a judge that the citizen in question has violated the laws of the nation and accordingly, that there are legitimate grounds for the issuance of an arrest warrant. If a warrant is granted, law enforcement has the legitimate right to take the suspect into custody where he/she may be detained for a maximum period of 7.5 days. This period can only be renewed if law enforcement uncovers evidence pertaining to the detained suspect’s highly probable culpability in a crime. Not only that but law enforcement must

Jack Shepherd Essay Example for Free

Jack Shepherd Essay ABC’s hit television series, Lost, portrays interesting characters. From all walks of life, the characters have one thing in common. They are all stranded on a deserted island somewhere off of the airline’s charted flight course. Forty- eight remaining passengers are thrown together as a result of this terrible plane crash, the literary complication. As the plot continues, they must all try to survive. A few of the survivors are badly injured, a few are hysterical, some are angry, and some are scared. No one appears to know what to do. Jack Shepherd is the protagonist who represents the hero of the pilot episode. Through indirect characterization, the writer presents Jack as a dynamic, round, and fully developed character. Jack Shepherd, as the protagonist, is a take-charge sort of guy who is the natural leader on the island, as illustrated by his actions early on in the episode. He calms a pregnant girl who is traumatized and having contractions, gives mouth-to-mouth resuscitation to an African American woman who has quit breathing, and he rescues, at the very last possible minute, a heavy-set guy and the expectant mother from disaster when he sees the plane collapsing. They are both unaware of the impending danger, and almost in superhero fashion, Jack runs down the beach and rescues them as the plane’s broken wing almost falls on the pair. The author presents him as an unselfish character who takes care of the needs of others first before seeking help for his own wounds. The Jones 02 author gives the viewers a glimpse into Jack’s background through his conversations with Kate, an attractive passenger, who sews up Jack’s wounds with a travel sewing kit. He tells Kate that he is a doctor, which explains his helping of the injured people on the island. Through this conversation, we learn that Jack, almost a superhero is a normal human being. He shows fear and vulnerability by telling Kate the story about the horrible experience that he had with the surgery of the 16-year-old girl. He shows strength by telling Kate his method for dealing with fear. The author is using indirect methods of characterization in presenting Jack’s personality, and doesn’t just tell the viewer about Jack. Through showing the viewer Jacks full range of emotions, the author presents Jack as a round character who is able to push fear aside. This character is the most developed character in the pilot episode. As a fully developed character, we know more (through his conversations and actions in trying to save the injured people), about Jack than we do any other character. His main traits are stability, leadership, and emotional stability in a time of crisis. Jack is a dynamic character who changes based on his experiences. He talks about how he never lets fear take hold of him anymore as he relates the story of the surgery mistake to Kate. He shares his method of dealing with fear, and she later uses that method for herself later in the episode. â€Å"I decided to give into the fear for 5 seconds and I counted 1,2,3,4,5,† (Lost) Because of this experience in the past, he changed. Therefore we can assume that he is a real character with real emotions who is affected by what happens around him. The author never becomes the simple narrator who tells the viewers about Jack. It is left up to the viewer to decide what kind of character he is based on Jack’s actions. This is indirect characterization. The main character traits of this character are caring, control and sense of duty to help others. His emotions are in control. The author or screenwriter reveals this when Jack goes off to himself to examine the situation. The camera pans to a shot where Jack is surveying the situation and catching his breath from all that has just happened. His facial expression reveals that he knows that the group is in serious trouble, but he knows he must remain in control. Jack is a â€Å"thinking† character who actively begins searching for answers. Through a flashback scene, the writer reveals to the audience through Jack’s eyes, the moments before the crash. The epiphany occurs when he realizes that something much more serious may be happening on the island, and they are all stranded in a very dangerous place. Jack Shepherd is the hero of the pilot episode. He confronts danger, takes charge, and begins to make decisions for the group. He does not let destiny control him. He seeks a solution to the problem, becoming a proactive leader. The author uses his presentation of Jack to show that he is a dynamic and round character who has caught the viewers’ attention, enticing them to tune in next week. Works Cited â€Å"Pilot Episode. † Lost. Abrams, Lieber, Lindelof. ABC. New York. 22 September 2004. Television.

Mark Twains The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn †Controversial :: Adventures Huckleberry Huck Finn Essays

Huckleberry Finn – Controversial It seems like a never-ending question. When will we ever let it rest? You know the question I'm talking about; should the Adventures of Huckleberry Finn be banned from American Literature courses? It's been argued from so many different standpoints, but it has never been settled. Is Huckleberry Finn really a controversial book? No, I do not agree with the banning of Huckleberry Finn. This book is considered to be a classic. It explores the depths of our past in many different ways. Those who think the book to be controversial probably have never ever read it before. Most likely, they're basing their judgments on the excessively used word, "nigger." For those who have read the book and still feel necessary to ban it are obviously missing the key points of this American classic. If you understand Huckleberry Finn, then you'll realize it's not about slavery or racism. It's about being unprejudiced. In the book, Huck admits that Jim "had an uncommon level head for a nigger." If you were to take out the black and white scenario, you would see that this quote is clearly nothing but acceptance. Huck is accepting Jim, regardless of his ethnic background. If you looked deeper, you would also see, the book is about nothing less than freedom and the quest for freedom. It's about a slave who breaks the law and risks his life to win his freedom and be reunited with his family. He was lucky enough to have a friend who made him his best friend and helped him to escape. Truly this isn't controversial; it's real life. Another controversial aspect of the book would be the use of the word "nigger" and its being in the book over 200 times creates constant scrutiny. I feel the word was not used to be racist and its usage in the book gives great representation of the way life was during the pre-civil war era. People need to grasp the concept that that's how black were treated then. In today's society, we would find quotes such as, "Good gracious! Was anybody hurt?" "No'm. Just a nigger," APPALING! But in fact, it was written in an earlier time setting when quotes like that were okay to say.

Introduction to Marketing Revision Notes

Chapter 1: Marketing Principles and Society Definitions: Chartered Institute of Marketing (CIM): The management process of anticipating, identifying and satisfying customer requirements profitably (CIM, 2001) The American Marketing Association: The activity, set of institutions and processes for creating, communicating, delivering, and exchanging offerings that have value for customers, clients, partners, and society at large. (AMA, 2007) These definitions stress the importance of considering the customer requirements and to delivering value. The difference between a customer and a consumer, is that the customer physically buys the product, and the consumer actually uses (or eats) it. The Marketing Process Marketing comprises 4 phases of activity, which is a component in the process of creating value for the customer: 1. The design phase. Companies identify customer and consumer needs, and design the product offering around their needs to create value for the customer. 2. The development phase. Companies develop products, services, and ideas, which meet those needs and deliver the intended value. 3. The delivery phase. Companies distribute those products, services and ideas to their customers and consumers and customers receive the product offering and the value created 4. The determination phase. Companies determine whether or not what customers receive really fits their needs or not and it not, redesign the product until it does fit their needs, and provide the customer with real value (or the organisation goes out of business). This process is cyclical, because products usually begin with the determination phase. There is a feedback loop to determine whether this product suits customers’ needs. These processes are influenced and dependent upon society and are regulated by government. Marketing: Ancient or Brand New? Marketing as a coherent approach to business has been around since the early 1920s. 1. Production period, 1890s-1920s: focus on physical production and supply, where demand exceeded supply, there was little competition, and the range of products was limited. This phase took place after the industrial revolution. 2. Sales Period, 1920s-1950s: focus on personal selling supported by market research and advertising. This phase took place after WW1. . Marketing Period, 1950s-1980s: more advanced focus on customer needs. This phase took place after WW2. 4. Societal Marketing Period, 1980s-present: stronger focus on social and ethical concerns in marketing. Marketing as a discipline has developed through the influence of practitioners, and through developments in the areas of industrial economics, psychology, sociology, and anthropology, (see page 9 for theorists): * I ndustrial Economics Influences – our knowledge of matching supply with demand comes from the development of microeconomics. Psychological Influences – our knowledge of consumer behaviour comes principally from psychology, particularly motivational research in relation to consumer attitudes, perceptions, motivations, and information processing. * Sociological Influences – our knowledge of how groups of people behave comes mainly from sociology, with insights into areas, such as how people from similar gender and age groups behave. * Anthropological Influences – our debt to social anthropology increases more as we use qualitative market research approaches such as observation to research consumer behaviour. Differences between Sales and Marketing Selling: Product push Marketing: Product pull Marketing * Tends towards long term satisfaction of customer needs * Tends to greater input into customer design of offering (co-creation) * Tends to high focus on stimulation of demand Sales * Tends towards short-term satisfaction of customer needs. * Tends to lesser input into customer design of offering (co-creation) * Tends to low focus on stimulation of demand, more focused on meeting existing demand What do Marketers Do? . Provide marketing intelligence and customer insight 2. Provide strategic marketing direction for the organisation 3. Develop the customer proposition 4. Manage and provide marketing communications 5. Use and develop marketing and customer information 6. Lead marketing operations and programmes 7. Work with other business functions and 3rd parties 8. Manage and develop teams and individuals Marketers at different levels of organisation will undertake different components of t hese functions at different levels. Generally, senior marketer/marketing director will guide and direct these functions, while the marketing manager will manage them, the marketing executive will undertake the actions necessary to fulfil these functions, and the marketing assistant will support the marketing executive (CIM, 2OO5). The Marketing Mix and the 4 Ps There are some general concepts that help managers frame their actions as they develop their marketing plans and undertake marketing tactics. The marketing manager was a â€Å"mixer of ingredients†, a chef who concocted a unique marketing recipe to fit the requirements of the customers’ needs at any particular time. Eugene McCarthy (1960) simplified and amended the memorable 4ps from previous lists: 1. Product – the offering and how it meets the customers’ needs, packaging and labelling. 2. Place (distribution) – the way in which the product meets customers’ needs. 3. Price – the cost to the customer, and how the cost plus profit to the seller 4. Promotion – how the product’s benefits and features are conveyed to the potential buyer Extended Marketing Mix for Services: the 7Ps American scholars, Boom and Bitner (1981), incorporated a further 3Ps into the marketing mix: 5. Physical evidence – to emphasise that the tangible components of services were strategically important since customers used these to infer what the quality of the service might be e. g. students requesting brochures of different universities, to pick the course most suitable. 6. Process – because service delivery cannot be separated from the customer consumption process. Process is included because of the need to manage customer expectations, interaction and satisfaction. E. g. track and trace delivery services. 7. People – included to emphasise that services are delivered by customer service personnel, sometimes experts and often professionals who interact with the customer sometimes in an intimate manner (e. g. spa treatments). How they interact with customers, and how satisfied customers are as a result, is of strategic importance. Market Orientation * Marketing Orientation: a company that increases the importance of marketing within the organisation, e. g. by appointing a marketing person to its board of directors. * Market Orientation: doesn’t just involve marketing. Involves all aspect of the company, gathering and responding to market intelligence (i. e. customers’ verbalised needs and preferences, market research etc) Developing a market orientation means developing the following: * Customer orientation * Competitor orientation * Interfunctional orientation Organisations that manage to develop a market orientation are better at market sensing (understanding the strategic implications of the market for a particular organisation). Relationship Marketing Organisations must keep relationships with the parties exchanging value. 1. Suppliers 2. Potential employees . Recruiters 4. Referral markets – where they exist (banks rely on professional services i. e. estate agents for mortgage referrals) 5. Influence markets – e. g. government bodies for companies in the public sector 6. Internal markets – e. g. existing employees Relationship marketing concerns the integration of customer service and quality assurance. Customer re tention is more important to companies than customer acquisition. Research proves that retention is more profitable than acquisition: * Customers will increase their purchases over time * Customers cheaper to promote to Customers who are happy with their relationship with a company are happy to refer to others The Consumer Services Perspective Some commentators argue that products and services have significant differences and similarities: Services: * Cannot be protected by a patent * Do not make use of packaging * Lack a physical display * Cannot be demonstrated in the same way However there are major similarities, including the need to: * Work at full capacity * Develop trade and service marks * Use promotional media * Use personal selling techniques The five characteristics of service products Service industries are generally seen to have 5 important differentiating characteristics: 1. Intangibility – enhancing physical environment, producing brochures, leaflets, by obtaining service quality kite marks. 2. Inseparability – production and consumption are inseparable in service markets. There is a need to manage carefully relationships between clients and their customers, managing their expectations of the quality of the service that they receive. 3. Variability – the quality and standard of service products varies depending on the individual customer and the service provider. Can be difficult to monitor and control service production to ensure consistent service standards. 4. Perishability – services cannot be stored and consumed at a later date, unless they are recorded. Service-based businesses must maximise how much their facilities are used through yield management. E. g. offering discounts at specific times. 5. Non-ownership – customers cannot own the service they receive because ownership is not transferred from the seller to the buyer as it is with a tangible good. The Business to Business Perspective The emphasis in b2b markets is strongly focused on the development and building of mutually satisfying relationships based on commitment and trust, to win the contract in the first place. B2b marketers can create a competitive advantage if they develop a linkage between the marketing and logistics functions, developing a strong customer service proposition on the following items: * Reduction in order cycle times * Simple accurate invoicing procedures * Consistent and reliable delivery * Simple and effective claims procedures * Availability of inventory Good condition of goods and effective service delivery * Flexible delivery times * Strong after-sales support What Impact Marketing has on Society It is important to be critical of marketing. As beneficial as it can be, by providing wants and needs of customers and consumers, with higher technology, more ethical products, with it can also come by marketing bad products, such as alcohol. Cigarettes have been banned to be advertised, but it is important to recognise that not all companies market products for the greater good, but because they can make a profit. Chapter 2: The Marketing Environment . External Environment 2. Performance Environment 3. Internal Environment The external environment consists of the political, social, and technological influences, and organisations have relatively little influence on each of these things. The performance environment consists of the competitors, suppliers, and indirect service providers who shape the way an organisation achieves its objectives. Here, organisations have a much stronger level of influence. The internal environment concerns the resources, processes, and polices an organisation manages in order that it can attempt to achieve its goals. These elements can be influences directly by an organisation. Understanding the External Environment The Political Environment The political environment relates to the period of interaction between business, society, and government before those laws are enacted, when they are still being formed, or are in dispute. Political environment analysis is a critical phase in environment scanning because companies can then detect potential legal and regulatory changes in their industries and so they can have a chance to impede, influence, and alter that legislation. The Economic Environment Companies have to develop an understanding of the economic environment in which they operate and trade. The external environment of a firm is affected, but not exclusively, by the following items: * Wage Inflation * Price Inflation * Gross Domestic Product (per capita) – combined output of goods and services in a particular nation and is a useful measure for determining relative wealth between countries * Income, sales, and corporation taxes – taxes run at different levels all around the world, substantially affecting how we market goods and services * Exchange rates Export quota controls and duties All these factors can change the amount a company charges for its products and services. Companies need to understand how prices or labour costs change if we are importing goods and services, or even components, from another country. The difficulty comes in comparing prices from one country to another. Firms usually have little impact on the macroeconomic environment since t hey have little control over macroeconomic variables, e. g. oil prices, which might affect their business. The Socio-Cultural Environment Lifestyles are constantly changing and consumers are constantly shifting their preferences over time. Companies who fail to recognise this will ultimately fail. Companies must consider the nature of households, lifestyles and the family structure, and the changing values in society or in a consumer group as important variables in their scanning process. The Technological Environment The emergence of new technologies can substantially affect not only high-technology businesses but non-technology businesses as well. Examples include those aspects of technology which impact upon productivity and efficiency. New technology is increasingly changing the way that companies go to market through moves towards more email and web-based marketing. The difficulty for most firms is how to determine whether or not to invest in radical new technologies, since the potential benefits are far from clear at the outset. The Legal Environment The legal environment covers every aspect of an organisation’s business. Laws and regulation are enacted in most countries ranging from the transparency of pricing, minimum wages, business taxes, product safety, packaging and labelling, the abuse of a dominant market position. All of these come under the umbrella of the legal environment. The Ecological Environment Concept of sustainability in marketing and corporate (social) responsibility. Increasingly, customers are being worried about the impact of companies on their ecological environments. Consumers are equally concerned with ensuring that products are not sourced from countries with poor and coercive labour policies. Orsato (2006) suggested that a company should adopt one of the following four different green marketing strategies: 1. Eco-efficiency – developing lower costs through resource productivity (e. . energy efficiency). This approach should be adopted by companies which need to focus on reducing the cost and environmental impact of their processes. 2. Beyond compliance leadership – the adoption of a differentiation strategy through organisational processes such as certified schemes to demonstrate their ecological credentials. This approach should be adopted by firms which suppl y industrial markets, such as car manufacturers. 3. Eco-branding – the differentiation of a firm’s products or services to promote environmental responsibility. For example, BP – formerly British petroleum – who changed their logo to make it green and yellow in a flower petal and sun synthesis, which they call the Helios, and slogan to â€Å"beyond petroleum† to reflect their intended shift in meeting the world’s energy requirements to more sustainable sources. 4. Environmental cost leadership – the offering of products and services which give greater environmental benefits at a lower price. This strategy suits firms operating in price-sensitive ecologically sensitive markets, such as the packaging and chemical industries. Chapter 3: Marketing Psychology and Consumer Buying Behaviour Diffusion Process Consumers purchase products at different times in the product life cycle. 1. Innovators: kick starts adoption process 2. Early Adopters: speeds up adoption process. Opinion leaders. 3. Early Majority: more risk averse than other 2 groups. This group requires reassurance. 4. Late Majority: sceptical of new ideas. Only adopt products due to social/economic factors. 5. Laggards: opinions hard to change. Small majority. Lowest income and social status. Suspicious of new ideas Innovators: 2. 5% of population Early adopters: 13. 5% of population Early majority: 34% of population Late majority: 34% of population Laggards: 16% of population It is likely that a promotional campaign should only be targeted at innovators and the early majority. Word of mouth and reputation will get round to the late majority and laggards. People are classified into these groups, but the type of people in the groups can swap and change depending on the type of product. Consumer Product Acquisition Motive Development Information Gathering Product Evaluation Product Selection Acquisition Re-evaluation Motive Development: the model begins when we decide we need to acquire a product. This involves initial recognition that some sort of problem needs solving, i. . need a new dress Information Gathering: the next stage requires us to look for alternative ways of solving our problem. We are open to ways of solving our problem, i. e. looking online Product Evaluation: once we feel we have all the information that we need to make a decision, we evaluate the products, i. e. choose between 2 dresses Product Selection: the pr oduct we eventually select is the one that we evaluate as fitting our needs best beforehand. This is a separate stage because there are times when we must re-evaluate, because what we want may not be right, or not available, i. . pick best dress Acquisition: once selection has taken place, different approaches to product acquisition might exist. It is important for the marketers to ensure that their customer value the product that they receive, i. e. buy online, with chance to return within 14 days, free delivery etc. Re-evaluation: the theory of cognitive dissonance (Festinger, 1957) suggests that we are motivated to re-evaluate our beliefs, attitudes and opinions. To reduce dissonance, we might: * Selectively forget information * Minimize the importance of an issue, decision or act Selectively expose ourselves to information which agrees with our existing view * Reverse a purchase decision (take product pack) Perceptions Consumer understanding very much depends on how effectively the message is both transmitted and perceived. In any one day, consumers receive thousands of messages. AMA, 2007: Based on prior attitudes, beliefs, needs, stimulus factors, and situational determinant, individuals perceive objects, events of people in the world about the. Perception is the cognitive impression that is formed of â€Å"reality† which in turn influences the individual’s actions and behaviour toward that object. The process of screening such meaningful information from the non-meaningful is known as selective exposure (Dubois, 2000). The implication for marketers is the importance of determining what media your customers use, and which they ignore. Perceptual mapping is a useful tool to determine how consumers perceive competing products and services, by comparing labels, brands and products, by rating those using semantic differential questions. Learning Consumers are continually learning about new product characteristics, their performance and new trends. Learning is the process by which we acquire new knowledge and skills, attitudes and values, through the mediums of study, experience, or modelling others’ behaviour. There are numerous theories of human learning, including classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and social learning. Classical Conditioning: Ian Pavlov stated that classical conditioning occurs, because we learn by associating one thing with another, in Pavlov’s case, the sound of the bell and arrival of food made the dogs salivate, so eventually, just by the sound of the bell, the dogs assumed that food would arrive. Operant Conditioning: Skinner (1954) argued that learning was the result of operant conditioning, which is learnt through behaviour reinforcement, through punishment or reward. Social Learning: Bandura (1977) suggested humans are much more thoughtful and less animalistic than the Skinnerian behaviourist school of learning suggested. Also contrasting to operant conditioning, Bandura argued that we can delay gratification and dispense our own rewards our punishment. In other words, we have more choice over how we react to stimuli than Skinner proposed. We can reflect on our own actions and change our future behaviour. In social learning, we learn by observing the behaviour of others. Memory Knowledge develops with familiarity, repetition of marketing messages, and consumers acquisition of product/service information. According to Bettman (1979) our memories are highly complex, there are a variety of memorisation processes which affect consumer choice, some of which include the following: 1. Recognition and recall – less frequently used words in advertising are recognised more. The more unique a campaign’s message, the better it is recognised, but the worse it is recalled. 2. Effects of context – memorisation is strongly associated with the context of the stimulus, and while information may be available in memory it will be inaccessible in the wrong context. 3. Form of coding and storage of objects in memory – subjects may store information in the form it is presented to them, either by object (brand) or dimension (product/service attribute). 4. Effect of processing load – this concept operates from a capacity allocation theory of memory suggesting that we are likely to find it more difficult to process information into our short and long term memories when we are presented with a great deal of info at once. . Effects of input mode – short term recall of auditory input (i. e. sound) is stronger than the short term recall of visual input (sight) where the 2 compete for the consumers attention. 6. Effects of repetition – recall and recognition of marketing messages increase the more times a consumer is exposed to them alth ough there are decreasing increments in memory performance and repetition increases. Personality How and what we buy is also based on our personalities. Personality: the aspect of our psyche that determines the way in which we respond to our environment in a relatively stable way over time. 3 main approaches: . Psychoanalytic approach – stresses self-reported unconscious desires 2. Trait theory – stresses classification of personality types 3. Self concept approach – concerned with how we perceive ourselves as consumers. Psychoanalytic Approach Freud (1927) stated that someone’s personality is determined by their sexual development through the oral, anal, phallic, latent, and genital stages. An adult’s personality is developed according to how well they cope with crises that occur during these 5 phases. ID – instinctual drives and urges Ego – attempts to find outlets for the urges in our id and acts as a planning centre. Moderated by superego. Superego – controls how we motivate ourselves to behave to responds to our instincts and urges, so that we do in a socially acceptable manner, and avoid any feelings of guilt or shame. Social conscience. Trait Approach This approach categorises people into different personality types. There are 20 needs. E. g. autonomy, aggression, and achievement. Maslow (1943) suggested a hierarchical order of human needs: Self-actualisation Needs The need to fulfil our potential Esteem Needs Valued and respected by self and others Belongingness Needs Affection, attachment, friendship Safety Needs A predictable non-threatening environment Physiological Needs Food, water, oxygen, sex, and shelter from the elements The importance of each level ranges from country to country, as some needs are more readily available than others. Chapter 4: Marketing Research and Marketing Information Systems Marketing research is used to obtain information that provides the management of a company with sufficient insight to make more informed decisions on future activities. For a business to be successful, an organisation must understand the motivations, desires and behaviour of its customers and consumers. Marketing research specifies the information required to address certain issues; design methods for manage and implement the data collection process; analyse the results and communicate the findings and their implications. (ESOMAR 1995) Even though marketing research is the foundational element of modern marketing practice, market research is valued by some companies more than others. Commissioning Marketing Research Conducting market research depends largely on the size of the company and the type of product or service being sold. Some large companies employ market research agencies to conduct their research for them. The main advantage of using agencies is that it is relatively cheap compared with undertaking the research in-house and collecting the data independently. The main disadvantages of using agencies are that the agency sometimes cannot achieve the depth of knowledge of the client’s problems or market unless it offers a niche specialism in this area. In many syndicated surveys, (retail audits etc) several rival organisations buy the same data from the agency, so a cost effective survey can be carried out. However the survey could be less specific to each business. The Marketing Research Brief Typical contents might include the following: * Background summary – brief info and details about the company and its products it offers * Management problem – clear statement of why the research should be undertaken and which business decisions are dependent upon its outcome * The marketing research questions – a detailed list of the information necessary in order to make the decisions outlined above * The intended scope of the research – the areas to be covered, which industries, type of consumer etc. Should be provided. Should give an indication of when the info is required and why that date is important * Tendering procedures – the client organisation should outline how agencies are to be selected as a result of the tendering process. Specific info may be required such as CVs from agency personnel to be involved in the study, and referee contact address The Marketing Research Process Stage 1 – define the problem Stage 2 – decide the research plan Stage 3 – undertake the data collection Stage 4 – undertake the data analysis/interpretation Stage 5 – write the report and deliver the presentation See book for detailed descriptions, page 144 Competitive Intelligence and Marketing In formation Systems It’s no good having lots of data unless you know how to use it. Companies are frequently swimming in data but have no means to convert the data into intelligence or no means to store it and provide it to end users. Competitive Intelligence – the organised, professional approach to collection, analysis, and distribution of timely, accurate and useful information as intelligence products – intelligence that contributes materially to the achievement of strategic and tactical business objectives (Nolan, 1999). There are various techniques used which include: * Use remote psychological assessment tools to build profiles of business opponents * Collecting competitive intelligence at conferences and trade shows * Collecting information on rivals from their customers and suppliers using elicitation techniques * Collecting intelligence on rivals from 3rd parties using elicitation techniques Marketing Research and Ethics Many supermarkets adopt loyalty cards. The major value of such schemes is the provision of consumption information. This data is analysed by a 3rd party, and sold to the company. Since marketing research is based on the cooperation of the individuals or organisations that provide the answers or fill in the questionnaires, marketing research should be carried out in an objective, unobtrusive, and honest manner. Researchers have been particularly concerned about the public’s increased unwillingness to take part in market research. Marketing research should neither attempt to induce sales of a product or service, nor influence customer attitudes, or intentions of behaviours. The general public and other parties are entitled to assurances that no information collected in a research survey will be used to identify them, or disclosed to a 3rd party without their consent. In conducting any marketing research, researchers have responsibility for themselves, their clients and the respondents from whom the information is being gathered. International Marketing Research Marketing researchers need to understand how culture operates in international markets and how this impacts upon research design. More variables need to be considered. Difficult to decide whether to use the same sampling frame, or study using different scales, sampling methods and sizing. The key issue faced by international researchers is to ensure comparable data are collected, despite differences in sampling frames, technological development and availability of interviewers. Conceptual Equivalence – when interpretation of behaviour or objects, is similar across countries. Functional Equivalence – a concept has similar functions in different countries Translation Equivalence – words in some languages have no real equivalent in other languages The International Marketing Survey Research Process . The project is discussed at length with the client 2. The fieldwork agencies for each country are selected 3. The questionnaire is developed centrally 4. The questionnaire is translated locally and the translation is checked centrally 5. The questionnaire is piloted locally 6. The questionnaire is finalised centrally 7. The interviewe rs are briefed locally by an executive of the central company 8. A coding and editing plan is provided for the local agencies 9. The edited and coded questionnaires are returned to the head office 10. A coding and editing check is carried out centrally 11. Data processing is carried out centrally Chapter 6 : Market Segmentation and Positioning The STP Process The method by which whole markets are subdivided into different segments is referred to as the STP process. STP refers to the 3 activities that should be undertaken. These are: 1. Segmentation 2. Targeting 3. Positioning Marketers are increasingly segmenting markets and indentifying attractive segments in order to identify new product opportunities, develop suitable positioning, and communicate strategies (i. . what message to communicate), and effectively allocate resources to key marketing activities (i. e. how much should we spend and where? ). Organisations operating in highly dynamic environments seek to conduct segmentation research at regular intervals to keep in touch with changes in the marketplace. Key benefits of STP process include: * Enhancing a company’s competitive position by providing direction and foc us for marketing strategies – such as targeted advertising, new product development and brand differentiation. Examining and identifying growth opportunities in the market through the identification of new customers, growth segments, or new product uses. * More effective and efficient matching of company resources to targeted market segments promises the greatest return on marketing investment. The Concept of Market Segmentation Market segmentation is the division of a market into different groups of customers with distinctly similar needs and product/service requirements. The purpose of market segmentation is to leverage scarce resources, to ensure that the elements of the marketing mix are designed to meet particular needs of different customer groups. With an increasing proliferation of tastes in modern society, consumers have increased in disposable incomes. As a result, marketers have sought to design product and service offerings around the consumer demand (market segmentation) more than around their own production needs (product differentiation) The process of Market Segmentation There are 2 main approaches to segmenting markets. 1. Breakdown Method – this adopts the view that the market is considered to consist of customers which are essentially the same, so the task is to identify groups which share particular differences. 2. Build-up Method – considers a market to consist of customers that are all different, so here the task is to find similarities. The breakdown approach is perhaps the most established and well recognized and is the main method used for segmenting consumer markets. The build up approach seeks to move from the individual level where all customers are different, to a more general level of analysis based on the identification of similarities. The aim of both methods is to identify segments in the market where identifiable differences exist between members within each segment (member homogeneity) The segmentation process varies according to the prevailing conditions in the marketplace and the changing needs of the parties involved, not simply the needs of the selling organisation. Market Segmentation in Consumer Markets To segment the consumer goods and service markets, we use market information we have collected based on certain key customer/product/situation related criteria (variables). These are classified as segmentation bases, they include profile, behavioural, and psychological criteria. The 4th segmentation criteria is contact data. The population can be segmented and analysed through various ways: * Demographics * Lifecycle * Geographics * Geodemographics * Psychographics * Behavioural criteria Transaction and purchase: the development of electronic technologies has facilitated the rapid growth in the collection of consumer purchase and transactional data, providing an additional consumer characteristic upon which to base market segmentation. Segmentation in Business Markets There are 2 main groups of interrelated variables used to segment business-to-business markets: 1. Organisational characteristics: organisational size/location/industry type (SIC codes). 2. Buyer characteristics: Decision-making unit structure/choice criteria/purchase situation. Organisational size: by segmenting organisations by size, it is possible to identify particular buying requirements. Geographic location: particularly useful since it allows sales territories to be drawn up around particular locations which salespersons can easily service. SIC codes: Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) codes are often used to get an indication of the size of a particular market. Easily accessible and standardised across most western countries. Decision-making unit: a decision making unit may have specific requirements that influence their purchase decisions in a particular market, i. e. policies, purchasing strategies, attitudes towards vendors and towards risk. Choice criteria: business markets can be segmented on the basis of the specifications of product/service that they choose. Purchase Situation: there are 3 factors associated with the purchase situation. 1. The structure of the buying organisation’s purchasing procedures (centralised, flexible etc). 2. What type of buying situation is present (new task, modified re buy, straight re buy) 3. What stage in the purchase decision process have target organisations reached? Target Markets It is important to determine which, if any, of the segments uncovered should be targeted and made the focus of a comprehensive marketing programme. It needs to be judged which markets are selected and exploited, and which markets are ignored. Kotler (1984) suggested that for market segmentation to be effective, all segments must be: * Distinct Accessible * Measurable * Profitable Targeting Approaches Once identified the company needs to select its approach to target marketing it is going to adopt. Four differing approaches can be considered: 1. Undifferentiated marketing e. g. UK post office, targets mass market. 2. Differentiated marketing e. g. Levi’s, targets multiple market segments. 3. Focu sed/concentrated marketing e. g. Jordan cereal targets consumers interested in organic. 4. Customised marketing: B2B markets (e. g. marketing research or advertising services) Market Segmentation: Some Limitations The process involves approximating product/service offering to the needs of customer groups, rather than providing an individual customised offering, there is a chance that our customers’ needs are not being fully met. * There is insufficient consideration of how market segmentation is linked to competitive advantage. Market segmentation has not tended to stress the need to segment on the basis of differentiating from competitors. * It is unclear how valuable segmentation is to the manager. Suitable processes and models to indicate how to measure the effectiveness of market segmentation processes are not yet available. Process issues – lack of experience, guidance and expertise concerning the way in which segmentation is undertaken and managed. Positioning Ha ving segmented the market, determined the size and potential of market segments, and selected specific target markets, the 3rd part of the STP process is to position a brand within the target market. Positioning is important because it is the means by which goods and services can be differentiated from one another and so give consumers a reason to buy. It’s about how customers judge a product’s value relative to competitors and its ability to deliver against the promises made. . Physical attributes – functionality and capability that a brand offers. 2. Communication – the way the brand is communicated and how consumers perceive the brand relative to other competing brands in the marketplace. Perceptual Mapping Perceptual mapping represents a geometric comparison of how competing products are perceived. The further apart the positions, the greater the opportunity for new brands to enter the market, because competition is less intense. Repositioning Strateg ies Markets, consumer tastes, fashions and competitors change. There are four main ways to approach repositioning a product. . Change the tangible attributes and then communicate the new product to the same market. 2. Change the way a product is communicated to the original market. 3. Change the target market and deliver the same product 4. Change both the product attributes and the target market. Chapter 9: Products, Services, and Branding Decisions The 3 levels of a product: 1. The core product – consists of the real core benefit or service. May be a functional benefit in terms of what the product will enable you to do, or an emotional benefit in terms of how it will make you feel. E. g. cars provide transportation and a means of self-expression. 2. The embodied product – consists of the physical good or delivered service that provides the expected benefit. E. g. features, durability, design, packaging, brand name etc. 3. The augmented product – consists of the embodied product plus all other factors necessary to support the purchase. E. g. credit and finance, training, delivery, installation, guarantees. Consumer Products Durable goods: can be used repeatedly and provide benefits each time they are used e. g. ike, Ipod Non-durable goods: limited duration, often only capable of being used once e. g. yoghurt, newspaper Convenience products can be sub-divided into 3 categories: 1. Stable products: bread, milk, petrol 2. Impulse products: chewing gum, chocolate, magazines 3. Emergency products: bandages, umbrella, plumber in the middle of the night when there’s a leak. Unsought products refers to a group of products which people do not normall y anticipate buying or want to buy. For example, insurance sold on the streets, double glazing, and timeshare holiday (mainly products pushed to buy from salespeople). Business Products There are 6 main categories identified according to how organisational customers (business people) use them: 1. Equipment goods 2. Raw materials 3. Semi-finished goods 4. Maintenance repair and operating goods 5. Component parts 6. Business services Product Lifecycles Product lifecycle is the belief that products move through a sequential, predetermined pattern of development. It consists of 5 distinct stages: 1. Development 2. Introduction 3. Growth 4. Maturity 5. Decline Speed of movement through the stages will vary but each product has a limited lifespan. The lifespan can be prolonged and extended, but the majority of products have a finite period. It does not apply to all products in the same way. E. g. some products reach the end of the introduction stage and then die as it becomes clear there is no market to sustain the product. Some products get to decline, and then get recycled back to growth stage by repositioning activities. Usefulness of Product Life Cycle The plc (product life cycle) concept allows marketing managers to adapt strategies and tactics to meet the needs of evolving conditions and product circumstances. It is a well known and popular concept and is a useful means of explaining the path a product or brand has taken. Clear, simple and predictable. However, in practice the PLC is not great use. Difficult to tell when the product has hit each stage in the cycle. Historical sales data does not help managers identify when a product has moved from one stage to another, so it is difficult to forecast sales and determine the future shape of the PLC curve. Great care is required when using the PLC. Idea Generation Idea Generation Screening Business Plans and Market Analysis Product Development and Selection Test Marketing Commercialisation The Process of Adoption The process through which individuals accept and use new products is referred to as the process of adoption (Rogers 1983). The process starts with people gaining awareness of a product and moves through various stages of adaptation before a purchase is eventually made. 1. Knowledge 2. Persuasion 3. Decision 4. Implementation 5. Confirmation Branding Branding is a method through which manufacturers and retailers help customers to differentiate between the various offerings in a market. It enables them to make associations with certain attributes or feelings with a particular brand. Brands are products and services that have added value. This value has been deliberately designed and presented by marketing managers in an attempt to augment their products with values and association that are recognised by and are meaningful to customers. It is customer perception and the brand’s value which is important. AMA definition: a name, term, sign, symbol, design or a combination, intended to identify the goods, or services of one seller or group of sellers, and to differentiate them from those of competitors (2006). There are 2 main types of attributes: 1. Intrinsic – functional characteristics of a product, such as shape, performance etc. 2. Extrinsic – brand name, price, packaging, marketing communications etc. Benefits of branding for consumers: * Assists people to identify their preferred products * Reduces level of perceived risk * Help people gauge the level of product quality * Reduces amount of time spent making product based decisions, decreases shop time. * Provide psychological reassurance or reward, especially for products bought on an occasional basis (e. g. esigner handbag) * Inform consumers about the source of a product (country or company) Benefits of branding for manufacturers and retailers: * Enable premium pricing * Help differentiate the product from competitive offerings * Encourage cross-selling to other brands owned by the manufacturer * Develop customer loyalty/retention and repeat purchase buyer behaviour * Assist the development and use of integrated mark eting communications * Contribute to corporate identity programmes * Provide some legal protection Types of Brands * Manufacturer brands: Persil, Heinz, coca-cola, Cadbury. Promoted heavily. Distributor (own label) brands: Argos, Harvey Nichols, Sainsburys. Sell manufactured and own label. * Generic brands: plain flour. Packaging only displays info required by law. Sold at prices substantially below normal price. Only firms in pharmaceutical sector use this type of brand now, as popularity elsewhere has declined. Brand Policies Individual branding: requires that each product offered by an organisation is branded independently of all the others. E. g. Unilever uses individual branding with Cif, Knorr and Dove. Advantages: * Easy to target specific segments and to enter new markets with separate names. If a brand fails or becomes subject to negative media attention, other brands are not likely to be damaged. Disadvantages * Heavy financial cost as each brand needs to have its own prom otional programme and associated support. Family branding: requires that all the products use the organisations name, either entirely or in part. E. g. Microsoft, Heinz, and Kellogg’s. Advantages: * It is hoped that customer trust will develop across all brands. * Promotional investment need not be as high as there will be a halo effect across all the brands when one is communicated. Disadvantages: * Damage to one product or operational area can cause problems across the organisation. Corporate branding: Single umbrella brand, based on the name of the organisation. Used by major supermarkets, business markets, and financial services. Advantages: * Promotional investments are limited to one brand. Disadvantages: * The risk is similar to family branding where damage to one product or operational area can cause problems across the organisation. Co-branding is where two established brands work together, either on one product or service. Brand Equity is a measure of the value of a brand. It is an assessment of a brand’s wealth, sometimes referred to as goodwill. Brand equity is considered important because of the increasing interest in trying to measure the return on promotional investments and pressure by various stakeholders to value brands for balance sheet purposes. A brand with strong equity is more likely to be able to preserve its customer loyalty and so fend off competitor attacks. There are 3 parts associated with brand equity: 1. Brand value, based on a financial and accounting base 2. Brand strength, measuring the strength of a consumer’s attachment to a brand 3. Brand description, represented by the specific attitudes customers have towards a brand Packaging There is a societal and political pressure to ensure that packaging and the materials used are appropriate and capable of being recycled. Packaging has 2 main roles to be, functional and communicative. * Protection * Preserved * Convenience * Clear messages about content, features, and dangers * Good design (complement physical attributes) * Brand identification and reassurance * Layout Labelling Labels are important. Deliver information about product usage * Help promote a brand * Enable brand owners to comply with various regulations and requirements * Good design Chapter 10: Price Decisions Price: the amount of money expected, required, or given in payment for something Price: something expended or endured in order to achieve an object In marketing terms, we consider price as the amount the customer has to pay or exchange to receive a good or service. Customer Perceptions of Pricing, Quality and Value Quality is defined as the standard of something as measured against other things of a similar kind. Consumers have differing views of the quality of the product they have purchased. Value is defined as the regard that something is held to deserve importance of worth. In marketing terms, perceived value refers to what we get for what we pay. Value = Quality/Price Although products might be perceived as expensive, they can still be perceived as value for money (e. g. Panadol is an expensive drug, but is more effective than own-label aspirin) Reference Prices: when customers have some idea of what they think is a fair price to pay for a certain good or service, or what they would expect to pay. When customers assess prices, they estimate value using pricing cues, because they do not always know the true cost and price of the item that they are purchasing. Odd Number Pricing: also known as psychological pricing. ?1. 99, we think is a lot cheaper than it is. Purchase Context in Pricing: starting off with cheaper prices before adding in extras (easy jet), or gym memberships with a small monthly fee but with a yearly contract. Consumers are drawn in more if they initially see a low price. Price Bundling: bundling other products together, e. g. magazines with free CD’s or DVD’s. This is pure price bundling. Mixed price bundling is when different products can be bundled together through choice, such as mobile phone packages with international call packages, SMS packages, and email, which can also be available independently or with other offers. Price bundles can also include â€Å"cash back† not just offering products. For example banks offer cash back schemes on money spent and inputted in their banks (Halifax pay ? 5 every month is ? 1000 is put into a current account). Pricing Approaches The setting of prices depends on a number of factors, such as demand, sales revenue, costs etc. There are 4 types of pricing approaches which can be used: 1. Cost-oriented approach (prices are set based on costs) 2. Demand –oriented approach (prices are based on price sensitivity and levels of demand) 3. Competitor-oriented approach (where prices are set based on what competitors charge) 4. Value-oriented approach (prices are set based on what customers believe to offer value) Pricing Policies Although there are 4 main types of pricing approaches, there are in fact many different possible pricing policies which could be used: 1. List pricing: unsophisticated approach to pricing. A single price is set for a product or service. 2. Loss leader pricing: the price of a product is set at a lower level than actual cost to product it. This entices customers into stores, and the loss incurred on these items is made up by increasing costs elsewhere on less price-sensitive items. 3. Promotional pricing: when companies temporarily reduce their prices below the standard price for a period of time to raise awareness of the product, to raise brand awareness in the short term. 4. Segmentation pricing: where varying prices are set for different groups of customers, e. g. tesco finest, tesco value, George asda, etc. Economists call this price discrimination. 5. Price skimming: the start of a product’s life cycle, a product is charged a lot higher, to recoup the costs of research and development, and to make the product â€Å"exclusive†. 6. Price penetration: the start of a product’s life cycle, a product is charged a lot lower, to gain market share and generate a large volume of sales to recoup research and development investment. Pricing in the B2B Setting B2B markets exist on the basis that firms sell products and services to one another rather than to end users. From the B2B seller’s perspective, there re numerous approaches to pricing products and services including the following: * Geographical pricing – where customers are located * Negotiated pricing – set according to specific agreements between company and client * Discount pricing – reduce prices on the basis that customer is prepared to bulk buy * Value-in-use pricing – price foc uses attention upon customer perceptions, what they expect to pay * Relationship pricing – understanding of customer’s needs, helps generate relationship * Transfer pricing – large organisations, internal dealing between different divisions of the company and across national boundaries. Economic value to customer – works on basis that a company prices a good according to its value to the client through comparison with a reference or market leading product, taking everything into consideration (start-up and post-purchase costs) Price Elasticity of Demand It allows us to determine how the quantity of a good or service relates to the price at which it is offered. Inelastic goods and services are defined as such, because a change in price has little effect in sales volumes, whereas elastic goods have large effects. We need to understand this concept in order to understand demand-orientated pricing mechanisms. Chapter 11: An Introduction to Marketing Communications Marketing communications or promotion is one of the 4ps of the marketing mix. It is used to communicate elements of an organisation’s offering to a target audience. Communication is the process by which individuals share meaning. There are 3 main models or interpretations, of how communication works. 1. Linear model 2. Two-way model 3. Interactive model Linear Model of Communication – page 434 Regarded as the basic model of mass communications. First developed by Wilbur Schramm (1955). The linear model emphasises that each phase occurs in a particular sequence, to enable to transmission of information, ideas, attitudes and emotion from one person or group to another. The goal is to create a message that is capable of being comprehended easily by the receiver. once encoded, the message must be put in a form that is capable of transmission. Once the receiver has received the message, they decode it, to make sense of it. Once understood, receivers react and provide a response, with feedback. The final component is understanding. The source and receiver understand each other. Increasing numbers of people now engage with interactive based communications, so companies and individuals cannot be involved in real dialogue. The linear model therefore is no longer entirely appropriate. The Two-Step Model of Communication People can have a significant impact on the communication process, and the two-step model goes some way to reflecting their influence. It recognises the importance of personal influences when informing and persuading audiences to think or behave in particular ways. There are 2 main types of influencer: * Opinion leader – ordinary person who has a heightened interest in a particular topic. * Opinion former – involved professionally in the topic of interest. These both have enormous potential to influence audiences. Messages from personal influencers provide reinforcement and message credibility. The Interaction Model of Communications Model is similar to two-step model but contains one important difference. Mass media is not the only source of communication. Interaction model recognises that messages can flow through various channels and that people can influence the direction and impact of a message. Interaction is about actions that lead to a response and much attention is now given to the interaction that occurs between people. The development of digital technologies has been instrumental in enabling organisations to provide increased interaction opportunities with their customers. (e. g. press the red button to get more info). News programmes now encourage viewers to phone or send in their emails and pictures about particular issues. This gets audiences to express their views and in doing so, promoting access to, and interacting with the programme. The Role of Marketing Communications The success of marketing communications depends upon the extent to which messages engage their audiences. These audiences can fall into 3 groups: * Customers * Channel members – suppliers, retailers, wholesalers, value added resellers * Stakeholders – shareholders, employees, local community There are many types of exchange, but 2 of particular importance: 1. Transactional Exchanges: transactions that occur independently of any previous exchanges. Short term orientation. When a consumer buys an mp3 player, a brand they have not bought from before, then a transactional exchange can be identified. . Collaborative Exchanges: longer term orientation. Develops between parties who wish to build long-term supportive relationships. When a consumer buys their 3rd product from the same brand as the mp3 player, perhaps from the same dealer, collaborative exchanges are taking place. Audiences who prefer transactional exchanges will engage better with advertising and mass media-base d communications, as messages are impersonal and product focused. Companies by adding extra touches, can convert a shopping experience from transactional to collaborative, by putting in extra effort to maintain relationships. The Tasks of Marketing Communications There are 3 main aspects associated with marketing communications: 1. Engagement 2. Audience 3. Responses Communications can be used to differentiate brands and companies, to reinforce brand memories and expectations, to inform (make aware and educate audiences), and finally to persuade them to do things or to behave in particular ways. The Marketing Communications Mix The traditional marketing communications mix consists of a set of 5 primary tools: 1. Advertising 2. Sales promotion 3. Direct marketing 4. Public relations 5. Personal selling These 5 primary tools are used in various combinations and with different degrees of intensity in order to achieve different communication goals with target audiences. Word-of-mouth Word-of-mouth communication is â€Å"interpersonal communication regarding products or services where the receiver regards the communicator as impartial†. Integrated Marketing Communications IMC is concerned with harmonising the messages conveyed through each of the promotional tools, so that audiences perceive a consistent set of meanings within the messages they receive. Cultural Aspects of Marketing Communications Culture is important because it provides individuals within a society with a sense of identity and an understanding of what is deemed to be acceptable behaviour. Within businesses various types of culture arises: * National culture * Industry/Business culture * Organisational culture * Individual behaviour Corporate Concentration – a few large organisations own more and more media properties. Chapter 12: Marketing Communications: Tools and Techniques The marketing communications mix is a set of 5 tools that can be used in various combinations to communicate with target audiences: 1. Advertising 2. Sales promotion 3. Public relations 4. Direct marketing 5. Personal selling There are 6 key classes of media: 1. Broadcast 2. Print 3. Outdoor 4. In-store 5. Digital 6. Other (which includes both cinema and ambient media) The Role and Purpose of the Marketing Communications Mix Media fragmentation: the expansion of media where different classes of media have recently been used in different ways and developed. Advertising Advertising is a non-personal form of communication. It reaches large, mass audiences in an impersonal way. * Can be used to influence demand for products Can be used to manage perceptions and understanding about the organisation as a whole. Strong theory of advertisement – Jones (1991) Weak theory of advertisement – Ehrenberg (1997) Other Promotional Methods and Approaches * Sponsorships * Product placement * Branded entertainment * Field marketing * Exhibitions * Viral marketing Chapter 13: Managing Communications: Strategy, Planning, a nd Implementation There are 3 core marketing communication strategies, each based on broad target audiences: * Pull strategies – used to communicate with end user customers. Consumers and organisations within a B2B context. * Push strategies –

Labor Unions in US

Labor Unions must be understood in the context of the economic structures that occurred within the United States and included the agrarian, industrial, and post industrial period (Cohen 27). In the year 1700, there were approximately 220,000 people living in the United States and approximately 95% were farmers (94 Almanac 53). The farmers comprised small communities and at that time there was no need for Unions as we know them today. Some of the earliest Unions were created in the 1700's when the shoemakers in Philadelphia formed a Trade Union for the purpose of regulating the wages that they would pay an apprentice and establish the length of time that apprenticeship would be necessary (Leap 29). In the mid-1700's small cities began to grow along the east coast of the United States. Although the cities began to grow, the society was still agrarian in nature (Cohen 28). As the country entered he industrial revolution, the population began to migrate to the cities (Cohen 28). The industrial revolution experienced a need for coal, oil, and food production, especially the meat packing industry (Cohen 29). The needs centered around the railroads which expanded greatly during the 1850's (Rogers 7). During this period the railroads became dependent upon massive amounts of information and organization to effectively run their operations. It is during this time period that the railroads developed management practices that included formalized accounting procedures and management techniques for supervisors dealing with the many people employed by the railroad (Rogers 7). In addition, the railroads began to establish their own codes, rules and regulations for operating the railroads (Yates 153). In 1910, the population of the United States had grown to 92. 2 million people (Census Bureau 26). Industry was expanding at a rapid rate and the companies that controlled them pushed for greater profits and efficiency. Industries also published their own magazine, such as â€Å"Factory Magazine† that was aimed at reaching a higher level of production (Yates 105). Also include for the first time were magazine articles written to improve the morale of the factory worker in an attempt to humanize the workforce through articles and illustrations (Yates 74). However, these article were also an attempt to educate the work force in the policies and procedures of the company. Many of these companies also had constructed â€Å"company towns† where the factory workers were employed, resided in company owned buildings in which they paid rent, bought food and clothing in company owned stores and also company provided recreation (Leap 32). Many of the factory workers, almost one-third, were uneducated immigrants that could not speak the American language and were frequently taken advantage of economically (Leap 30). The early 1900's also brought mass manufacturing and the interchangeable parts for equipment and machinery to the industries, based on the efforts of Henry Ford (Cohen 28). The United States had become the industrial leader of the world. The industrial giants in the United States gained so much control over their employees that the workers conformed to the organizational culture of that company (Gibson 29). Management theories and social theories during the early 1900's concentrated on managements side and the more effective production methods. In 1911, Frederick Taylor wrote â€Å"The Principles of Scientific Management† that emphasized time and motion studies, breaking large jobs into smaller ones and analyzing repetitive tasks in an attempt to find a more efficient way of doing the job. An employees pay quickly became dependent upon how many pieces could be produced in an hour or a day (French 69). Working conditions in factories were deplorable, with long hours, child labor and numerous industrial accidents that claimed many lives The issues that surrounded the early labor movement were centered around the redistribution of wealth of the companies that employees worked for. The labor movement in the United States began very slowly due to the oppressive actions taken by the large companies against the labor activists, which included firing employees, beatings, and killings. During the late 1860's to the 1930's, government actions supported big business believing that Unions would only interfere with private ownership (Cohen 113). Between 1876 and 1896, there were more injuries and deaths due to strikes in the United States than in any other nation in the world (Cohen 114). Companies hired private guards and security specialists to break up any strikers and protect company property (Cohen 114). Violence often was the result of result of early attempts at organizing labor movements. A riot in Baltimore lasted three days and claimed 13 lives. In Pittsburgh 20 people died as federal troops fired upon rioting workers and fires destroyed millions of dollars of railroad equipment (Leap 32). Violence also was occurring at the coal-mining companies when and secret societies such as the Molly Maguires that would threaten, beat or kill strike breaker at coal mines. Additionally the Molly Maguires, who often concealed their identity by dressing as as women, beat, killed and set fires to the homes of the supervisors and coal-mine superintendents who were not in agreement with the union cause. The Molly Maquires were broken up when the Pinkereton Detective Agency infiltrated the organization and exposed them which resulted in 14 Molly Maguires being tried and hanged (Leap 34). The public viewed much of this violence with an anti-union response, making it more difficult for the employees to unionize (Leap 33). With the population at over 92 million people in 1914, many who were now working in factories, the government began to recognize labor and created the Department of Labor in 1914 (Cohen 115). However, it was not until 1934 and the passage of the Wagner Act did labor really begin to unionize (Cohen 115). In addition, the government created the National Labor Relations Board to oversee union elections (Cohen 115). The Wagner Act allowed for employees to unionize and also allowed for the â€Å"closed shop† that required all employees of that factory or company to belong to the union once the union was voted in by the employees (Cohen 116). The Wagner Act legally permitted unions to organize and provide the much needed benefits for their employees. The goals of the unions during this time were to protect the jobs of their members and fight for increased wages and benefits (Leap 37). The benefits included safer working conditions, health care, sick leave, and vacation time (Leap 37). During these years the American Federation of Labor (AFL) became the largest single federation that began to organize craft unions. In 1938 the industrial unions were dissatisfied with the AFL federation and split off to form the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO), which sought to organize more unskilled labor (Leap 46). After World War II, the United States had approximately fifteen million workers that belonged to unions. In 1946, the United States experienced more labor strikes than ever before in history and the labor unions finally had a firm hold on large industrial and manufacturing companies (Leap 47). The Wager Act had provided the unions with a great deal of leverage and some unions quickly became corrupt and had very little accountability within their organization (Leap 48). The Taft-Hartley Act was passed in 1947 which was designed to curb some of the activities of unions and provide for unfair labor laws against the union that would be enforced by the National Labor Relations Board (Leap 48). The Taft-Hartley Act was successful in re-balancing the Wagner Act that gave the unions an unfair advantage of management (Leap 73). The Act also gave the President of the United States the authority to impose an 80-day injunction on any strike that may result in damage to the national economy or national interests (Infoplease 1). The injunctions have been used frequently in the transportation industry, where a strike against the railroads or the shipping industry could effect the distribution of food, clothing, or fuel, that could impact the economic structure of the country (Infoplease 1-2). In addition the Taft-Hartley act prohibited jurisdictional strikes involving two unions attempting to gain control over company employees for the right to represent them in collective bargaining (Infoplease 1-2). The Taft-Hartley Act prohibited the use of coercion by union officials to force employees to join the union, set the guide lines for bargaining in good faith with management, prohibited secondary boycotts that involved unions striking or boycotting products and materials of other companies that management held an interest, and prohibited excessive union dues from its membership. The unions reached their highest membership in 1954 reaching approximately 32% of all non-agricultural workers in America (Cohen 119). The following year the AFL and CIO Federations merged to make one large federation called the AFL-CIO (Cohen 119). What made the Unions so popular up to 1954 and what caused their decline? Early unions attempted to seek higher wages, less working hours, better and safer working conditions (Leap 51). Early unions also recognized the working conditions of the employees were critical to the production effort and experiments like the Hawthorne Experiment proved this to be true. In 1927 a team of Harvard researchers conducted experiments at Western Electric†s Hawthorne Electric Plant near Chicago, Illinois (Stillman 157). The tests were designed to discover the most effective way to motivate workers and these tests began the human relations era in organizational theory and development (Stillman 157). What was discovered after a five year study was that the interaction between the workers themselves and the with their supervisors, had more impact on the production levels than did wages or type of physical plant that they worked in (Stillman 158). Most of what was need by the workers was the social acceptance and feeling of worth among co-workers and bosses (Stillman 158). In every work area the individuals formed themselves into groups that have their own customs, duties, and localities to each other and management (Stillman 167). The attention given to the workers by management created a team effort that produced exceptional results on the assembly lines (Stillman 167). The Hawthorne experiment developed the human relations model of management for dealing with workers that existed from the 1930's to the 1960's, and in some variation still exists today (French 70). Training for interpersonal skills to â€Å"humanize† the workplace Unions continued to initially prosper as they also followed the developments of social researchers as Abraham Maslow, who in 1954 presented his view in human motivation (French 71). What resulted is called â€Å"Maslow†s Theory of Self-Actualization† where Maslow outlines the basic human needs for survival, then the need of safety and security, followed by the need for social acceptance and belonging, to the forth level of self-esteem, and the fifth level of self-actualization or self-fulfillment in doing one†s work (Halloran 104-108). The unions quickly adapted to the needs and desires of its membership and sought for issues such as respect in the workplace, health and safety issues, sexual harassment policies, equal pay for equal work, and generous leave time allowing for recreational activities. The Unions also became a culture within themselves, sponsoring community events for its members such as bazaars, summer picnics, Christmas parties, and scholarships programs for eligible dependent children of its members. The Unions provided community structure and support for its membership when those needs were necessary (Leap 49). The humanist approach to negotiating worked well for the unions in their negotiations with management. The more progressive companies such as IBM provided benefits that could out perform the best of unions and therefore IBM never experienced a serious threat to unionize because the work force needs were met under Maslow†s Theory (Halloran 315). Other large organizations such as the Japanese automobile maker Nissan, has also met the workers needs and therefore has built cars in the United States without the being unionized by the United Auto Workers Union, which is one of the largest and strongest unions remaining in North America (Halloran 315). The decline of labor unions began in the mid-1950's as many of the needs of the workers were being met, either through the company†s individual effort or the passage of federal and state laws that enhanced the workers position in life. Some of the laws passed were the Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA) in 1970 that provides for safe and healthy work environments for employees (Leap 90). The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) function is to make sure that the environment is regulated concerning emissions from cars and factories, which directly effects the workers that must work in those factories (Kuennan 4). The Fair Labor Standards Act brought into existence the minimum wage rate, established a 40 hour work week for hourly wage employee wages and also provided overtime at a one-and-one-half the normal hourly rate. The Act defined the number of hours that a child could work each week and restricted the type of employment that a child could engage in (Leap 89). Additional acts such as the Equal Pay Act was aimed at women in the work force as required equal pay for equal work. The Pregnancy Discrimination Act required that an employer treat the pregnancy as a temporary disability and to provide appropriate benefits (Kuennen 5). The Americans With Disabilities Act (ADA) also covered other disabilities and declared that discrimination against the disabled is illegal. The ADA also required that public buildings and private buildings that are open to the public, be handicap accessible, giving them unrestricted access (Leap 88). Discrimination laws, including sex, age, and disability discrimination, were issues that the unions previously fought to get for their membership are now being provided by federal and state law (Kuennan 5). The decline of the unions can also be attributed to the post-industrial age in the United States. Since the mid-1970's manufacturing has been leaving the United States and relocating in foreign countries where labor costs are much cheaper. Manufacturing such as steel production, clothing and textiles, and ship building have relocated to foreign countries over the past two decades (Cohen 110). The unions lobbied heavily against such trade agreements as the North American Free Trade Association (NAFTA) that created a free trading zone with the United States, Canada, and Mexico to avoid tariffs (Cohen 119). Many of the industrial jobs that were once in the United States are now in Mexico and even oversees (Cohen 119). While the unions have lost membership in the industrial and manufacturing areas, they have had some success in unionizing government workers (Cohen 120). The unions have targeted teachers, college and university professors, police, fire and other government workers such as the postal workers (Cohen 120). The latest groups to attempt unionization are the nurses, doctors and dentists within the health fields (Guadagnino 1). The public perception of unions was favorable during the mid-60's with approximately 70% of the people showing positive attitudes toward the unions. However, the public has lost a great deal of trust in the unions as corruption and a general feeling of not needing unions has evolved. By 1988 the confidence level or approval rate that was once 70% had dropped to 13% (Cohen 121). The public also blamed the unions for the high inflation in the 1970's and early 1980's in which the public believes that the unions drove up the prices of goods and services by their demands during contract negotiations. The non-union worker however suffered from this inflation while the unions upper level executives were getting paid salaries over $100,000 (Cohen 121). Governments also began to become more conservative in their treatment of unions. An example of this was in the early 1980's when the federal Professional Air Traffic Controllers Organization (PATCO) when out on strike and crippled the airline industry. PATCO went on strike to seek better working hours and to force the federal government to hire additional air traffic controllers to help reduce the stress levels of the current air traffic controllers. The Reagan administration took quick action and fired all the air traffic controllers and immediately used military personnel until new employees could be trained (Cohen 122). The population of the United States is over 270 million people as of March of 1999 and only 14% of the work force is unionized. This work force includes government employees of which 44% are union members (Dine 1). The culture of the population has changed dramatically and a great deal of the people are younger, better educated than the classes that were previously sought by unions (Cohen 123). The new class of American society is more professional and white collar in nature that mirrors the service industry that has evolved in the United States (Cohen 124). To add to the union decline was the fact that the corporations that once held the edge over unions, only to loose that edge in the 1940's through the 1960's, have again regained that edge decisively by attending to the public†s needs and social attitudes (Cohen 124). Company†s like McDonald†s have well developed publications departments that donate millions of dollars to charities such as the Ronald McDonald half-way house for the parents of terminally ill children in distant hospitals (Ronald 1-4). Corporations also donate and participate in attempting to keep the environment clean. The corporations realize that reaching the social conscience of the public is good business and worth the investment. In the last two decades the corporations identified with the social issues in America much more than did the unions (Cohen 124). Quality of life issues have become major considerations of this post-industrial class of Americans (Cohen 124). Even though companies have made the worker feel more important and accepted, there is still a need for unions. Companies are doing everything they can to save money. By focusing on the worker, they are making labor less dependant apon unions. They are fighting a war with the unions, and the battleground is the American worker. If the companies win then they are sure to underpay and abuse their employees. It is critical that unions recruit more agressively, or a lot the progresss they have made will be lost.